Space Science after Galileo
Space
Newton integrated Galileo’s terrestrial physics and Kepler’s laws of the heavens into a universal theory of gravitation, prompting new reflections on the nature of the universe itself. The example of “nebulae” illustrates these changes. “Nebulae” at one time meant “clouds” to Latin meteorologists, yet came to refer to misty clouds in the heavens revealed by telescopes but not easily resolved. Ultimately, many nebulae came to be understood as new galaxies in deep space, constantly receding in every direction from our own Milky Way. Developments like these might seem to vindicate Copernicus who exclaimed, “So vast, without any question, is the divine handiwork of the most excellent Almighty,” in one of the sentences censored by the Inquisition in 1616.
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Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, 1713 Newton, Isaac (1713) |
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Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, 1729 Newton, Isaac (1729) This is the first English translation of Newton’s masterwork in physics. The Copernican idea that the Earth moves as a planet required a thorough revision of physics. Galileo undertook this task in his Discourse on Two New Sciences, published 80 years after Copernicus. |
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A Treatise of the System of the World Newton, Isaac (1728) Newton’s mathematical physics established an understanding of the dynamics of the solar system. |
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An Original Theory or New Hypothesis of the Universe Wright, Thomas (1750) Wright proposed a model of the Milky Way as a flat wheel, and envisioned the nebulae as distant worlds upon worlds, far removed from the Milky Way itself.“That this in all Probability may be the real Case, is in some Degree made evident by the many cloudy Spots, just perceivable by us, as far... |
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Catalog of Nebulae and Star Clusters Messier, Charles (1774) This is the first edition of Messier's catalog of cloudy spots or "nebulae," numbered from M1 to M45. In 1781, Messier published a final catalog of 103 nebulae, which are now called "Messier objects." The Great Orion Nebula is M42. |
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Memoir and Correspondence Herschel, Caroline (1876) The 19th century saw an unprecedented expansion of known objects in the universe. William and Caroline Herschel conducted a comprehensive search of northern skies with telescopes powerful enough to resolve many nebulae into star clusters. |
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The Milky Way… drawn at the Earl of Rosse's Observatory at Birr Castle Boeddicker, Otto (1892) Artful lithographs of the Milkyway from a leading English observatory. |
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The Realm of the Nebulae Hubble, Edwin (1936) Hubble’s investigations with the 100-inch Hooker Telescope at Mount Wilson observatory, overlooking Los Angeles, California, led to a dramatic expansion of the universe. For Hubble, the universe is not limited to the Milky Way galaxy. |
